Reforms for financial protection schemes towards universal health coverage, Senegal

Advancing the public health insurance system is one of the key strategies of the Senegalese government for achieving universal health coverage. In 2013, the government launched a universal health financial protection programme, la Couverture Maladie Universelle. One of the programme's aims was to establish a community-based health insurance scheme for the people in the informal sector, who were largely uninsured before 2013. The scheme provides coverage through non-profit community-based organizations and by the end of 2016, 676 organizations had been established across the country. However, the organizations are facing challenges, such as low enrolment rates and low portability of the benefit package. To address the challenges and to improve the governance and operations of the community-based health insurance scheme, the government has since 2018 planned and partly implemented two major reforms. The first reform involves a series of institutional reorganizations to raise the risk pool. These reorganizations consist of transferring the risk pooling and part of the insurance management from the individual organizations to the departmental unions, and transferring the operation and financial responsibility of the free health-care initiatives for vulnerable population to the community-based scheme. The second reform is the introduction of an integrated management information system for efficient and effective data management and operations of the scheme. Here we discuss the current progress and plans for future development of the community-based health insurance scheme, as well as discussing the challenges the government should address in striving towards universal health coverage in the country

Purchasing reforms and tracking health resources, Kenya

As low- and middle-income countries undertake health financing reforms to achieve universal health coverage, there is renewed interest in making allocation of pooled funds to health-care providers more strategic. To make purchasing more strategic, countries are testing different provider payment methods. They therefore need comprehensive data on funding flows to health-care providers from different purchasers to inform decision on payment methods. Tracking funding flow is the focus of several health resource tracking tools including the System of Health Accounts and public expenditure tracking surveys. This study explores whether these health resource tracking tools generate the type of information needed to inform strategic purchasing reforms, using Kenya as an example. Our qualitative assessment of three counties in Kenya shows that different public purchasers, that is, county health departments and the national health insurance agency, pay public facilities through a variety of payment methods. Some of these flows are in-kind while others are financial transfers. The nature of flows and financial autonomy of facilities to retain and spend funds varies considerably across counties and levels of care. The government routinely undertakes different health resource tracking activities to inform health policy and planning. However, a good source for comprehensive data on the flow of funds to public facilities is still lacking, because these activities were not originally designed to offer such insights. We therefore argue that the methods could be enhanced to track such information and hence improve strategic purchasing. We also offer suggestions how this enhancement can be achieved

Espacio fiscal para salud en las Américas: ¿es suficiente el crecimiento económico? / Fiscal space for Health in the Americas: is economic growth sufficient? / Espaço fiscal para saúde nas Américas: o crescimento econômico é suficiente?

RESUMEN Objetivo. En 2014, los países miembros de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud firmaron la Estrategia para el acceso universal a salud y cobertura universal de salud. En ella, se comprometieron a aumentar el gasto público en salud hasta alcanzar la meta referencial de 6% del producto interno bruto (PIB). El objetivo de este trabajo es determinar, para cada uno de los países de la Región, si pueden alcanzar esta meta solo con crecimiento económico y, en el caso de ser posible, en qué plazos lo harían. Métodos. Se utilizaron datos del Banco Mundial y de la Organización Mundial de Salud y se estimaron las elasticidades del gasto público en salud con respecto al PIB para cada país. Con base en el crecimiento económico real y el proyectado por el Fondo Monetario Internacional 2016-2021, se proyectó la serie de gasto y se determinó el año en el que alcanzarían 6% del producto. Resultados. Seis países ya han alcanzado la meta de 6%. Los países de América Latina y el Caribe que la han logrado son aquellos que mantienen sistemas de salud únicos, basados en acceso y cobertura universales. Si se mantiene la priorización actual del gasto público en salud, tres países podrían alcanzar la meta en la próxima década. Otros cuatro países lo harían antes de medio siglo, diez en la segunda mitad y uno tendría que esperar hasta la próxima centuria. Por último, 13 países nunca alcanzarían la meta propuesta. Conclusiones. Este análisis demuestra las limitaciones del crecimiento económico como fuente de espacio fiscal. Será necesario recurrir a otras fuentes como mayor recaudación tributaria, impuestos específicos en salud y mayor eficiencia en el gasto público, lo que demandará un diálogo social y político de los países en torno al compromiso con los principios de la salud universal.

ABSTRACT Objective. In 2014, the Pan American Health Organization member countries signed the Strategy for Universal Access to Health and Universal Health Coverage. In it, they committed to increasing public health expenditure until reaching the benchmark of 6% of gross domestic product (GDP). The objective of this paper is to determine, for each country in the Region, if they can reach this goal by economic growth alone and, if so, how long it would take. Methods. Using World Bank and World Health Organization data, elasticity of public health expenditure with regard to GDP was estimated for each country. Real economic growth and International Monetary Fund projections for 2016-2021 were used to project the expenditure series and determine the year each country would reach 6% of GDP. Results. Six countries have already reached the 6% goal. The Latin American and Caribbean countries that have achieved it are those that have single health systems, based on universal access and coverage. If current prioritization of public health expenditure is maintained, three countries could reach the goal in the next decade. Four more countries would reach it before mid-century, ten in the second half of the century, and one would have to wait until the next century. Finally, 13 countries would never reach the proposed goal. Conclusions. This analysis demonstrates the limitations of economic growth as a source of fiscal space. Other sources will need to be tapped, such as increased tax collection, specific health taxes, and greater efficiency in public spending, which will require social and political dialogue in the countries regarding their commitment to universal health principles.

RESUMO Objetivo. Em 2014, os Estados Membros da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde firmaram a Estratégia para o acesso universal à saúde e cobertura universal de saúde com a qual se comprometeram a aumentar o gasto público em saúde até atingir a meta de referência de 6% do produto interno bruto (PIB). O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar se cada um dos países da Região conseguiria atingir esta meta apenas com o crescimento econômico e, neste caso, em que prazo. Métodos. O estudo se baseou em dados obtidos do Banco Mundial e da Organização Mundial de Saúde (OMS). Foi estimada a elasticidade do gasto público em saúde com relação ao PIB para cada país. A partir do crescimento econômico real e do crescimento projetado pelo Fundo Monetário Internacional para o período 2016-2021, foi feita a projeção dos gastos e determinado o ano em que seriam alcançados 6% do PIB. Resultados. Seis países já atingiram a meta de 6%. Os países da América Latina e Caribe que atingiram esta meta são os que têm um sistema de saúde único baseado no acesso e cobertura universais. Se for mantida a priorização atual do gasto público em saúde, três países conseguiriam alcançar a meta na próxima década. Outros quatro países atingiriam a meta antes de meados do século, 10 na segunda metade deste século e um somente a alcançaria no século seguinte. E, por fim, 13 países nunca atingiriam a meta proposta. Conclusões. Esta análise demonstra as limitações do crescimento econômico como fonte de espaço fiscal. Será necessário recorrer a outras fontes, como maior arrecadação tributária, impostos próprios para a saúde e maior eficiência no gasto público, o que demanda dos países um diálogo social e político quanto ao compromisso com os princípios de saúde universal.

Análisis del gasto de los hogares en salud en Argentina, como componente de la cobertura universal de salud / Analysis of household expenditure on healthcare in Argentina, as a component of universal health coverage

Resumen El Informe Mundial de Salud 2010 de la OMS delineó un marco conceptual para analizar los componentes de la Cobertura Universal de Salud, sugiriendo tres dimensiones: cobertura del servicio, cobertura financiera y cobertura de la población. A partir de ese marco, se analizan los gastos relacionados a la salud en los hogares argentinos en el año 2012/13. Para el análisis se utilizó como fuente de datos la Encuesta Nacional de Gastos de Hogares 2012/13. Se construyeron indicadores de gasto en salud de los hogares siguiendo la propuesta de Sherri (2012) y se definieron modelos multivariados para identificar determinantes del gasto de los hogares. Los resultados evidencian que la situación de gasto catastrófico en compromete al 2,3% de los hogares del país, mientras que el empobrecimiento debido al gasto en salud se encontró en el 1,7% de los hogares.

Abstract The 2010 World Health Report of WHO established a conceptual framework for the analysis of the components of Universal Health Coverage; three dimensions were suggested: services coverage, financial coverage, and population coverage. Within this framework, health-related spending of argentine households for the year 2012-2013 are analyzed. The analysis was performed on data retrieved from the National Survey of Household Expenditure 2012-2013. Household healthcare expenditure indicators were built following Sherri’s proposal (2012) and multivariate models were defined to identify determiners of household spending. Results indicate that catastrophic spending situations affect 2.3% of the country households, whereas impoverishment resulting from spending on healthcare was detected in 1.7% of them.

Asignación financiera en el Sistema de Protección Social en Salud de México: retos para la compra estratégica / Financial allocations in the System for Social Protection in Health in Mexico: challenges for strategic purchasing

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la coordinación financiera del Sistema de Protección Social en Salud (SPSS) y su capacidad para apoyar la compra estratégica de servicios. Material y métodos: Se analizaron informes oficiales y encuestas. Resultados: El SPSS cubre una cápita por afiliado de 2 765 pesos mexicanos, equivalente a 0.9% del PIB para 2013. La Secretaría de Salud asignó 35% del total; los gobiernos estatales 16.7%, y los beneficiarios 0.06%. La Comisión Nacional de Protección Social en Salud recibió 48.3% de estos recursos, de los cuales asignó 38% a los estados y pagó directamente a prestadores 7.4% del total. El aporte estatal está en déficit mientras que las contribuciones familiares tienden a no cobrarse. Conclusión: El SPSS no ha integrado fondos especializados en la compra estratégica capaz de transformar los presupuestos históricos. La autonomía de los prestadores es clave para que puedan contribuir a reducir el gasto de bolsillo mediante la oferta de servicios de calidad.

Abstract: Objective: The financial coordination of the System of Social Protection in Health (SPSS) was analyzed to assess its support to strategic purchasing. Materials and methods: Official reports and surveys were analyzed. Results: SPSS covers a capita of 2 765 Mexican pesos, equivalent to 0.9% of GDP. The Ministry of Health contributed 35% of the total, state governments 16.7% and beneficiaries 0.06%. The National Commission for Social Protection in Health received 48.3% of resources, allocating 38% to State Social Protection Schemes in Health and paying 7.4% of the total directly to providers.The state contribution is in deficit while family contributions tend not to be charged. Conclusion: SPSS has not built funds specialized in strategic purchasing, capable of transforming historical budgets.The autonomy of providers is key to reduce out-of-pocket spending through the supply of quality services.

La reforma de salud chilena a diez años de su implementación / Chilean health reform ten years since its implementation

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar el proceso de diseño e implementación del Acceso Universal con Garantías Explícitas (AUGE). Material y métodos: Revisión de bibliografía sobre antecedentes prerreforma, arquitectura de diseño y proceso de implementación de la reforma AUGE y, complementariamente, entrevistas a ocho informantes involucrados en su desarrollo. Resultados: La valoración de la equidad en la salud fue un elemento clave prerreforma; existen cuatro dimensiones fundamentales en el diseño y nueve fases en la implementación. Conclusión: Los resultados del AUGE muestran un fortalecimiento en la salud pública por la inversión en equipamiento para tratamientos costo-efectivos; también por las guías clínicas que estandarizan y orientan la gestión de los profesionales de la salud con los pacientes.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze the process of design and implementation of AUGE. Materials and methods: Literature review of pre-reform background, architecture design and implementation process of reform AUGE and complementary interviews to eight informants involved in its development. Results: The assessment of health equity was a key element in pre-reform, there are four fundamental dimensions in the design, and the implementation has nine phases. Conclusion: The results show AUGE strengthening public health by investing in equipment for cost-effective treatments, and also through clinical guidelines that standardize and guide the management of health professionals with patients.

Política de asignación de recursos del Seguro Popular: análisis y recomendaciones / Resource allocation in the Seguro Popular program: analysis and recommendations

Resumen: Objetivo: Describir los mecanismos de asignación y compra del Seguro Popular, la forma en que operan y los controles que se dan sobre ellos. Discutir esquemas de incentivos que mejoren el desempeño en general, fortalezcan la atención primaria y mejoren el acceso a los hospitales de especialidades. Material y métodos: Se evalúan las reformas de 2014 a la Ley General de Salud para entender su intención, que es fortalecer los sistemas estatales y la relación con la autoridad federal. Se discuten opciones para que los mecanismos de asignación incentiven mejor la atención primaria y el acceso a los tratamientos de especialidades para avanzar hacia mejores garantías de acceso a los servicios de salud. Conclusiones: Para convertir a los Regímenes Estatales de Protección Social en Salud en agentes para la expansión de los servicios debe superarse el enfoque programático para lograr una relación más eficaz entre la Federación y los Estados.

Abstract: Objective: To describe the mechanisms of allocation and purchase of the Seguro Popular program, the way they operate and how are controls applied.To discuss incentive schemes that can improve performance in general, strengthen primary care and improve access to specialty hospitals. Materials and methods: The 2014 reforms to the General Health Law are evaluated to understand their intent, which is to strengthen State systems and the relationship with the Federal authority. Options for allocation mechanisms to encourage better primary care and access to specialty treatments towards are discussed, to guarantee access to health services. Conclusions: To make State schemes of social protection in health agents for the expansion of services, the programmatic approach shall be replaced to achieve a more effective relationship between the Federation and the States.

Costo-efectividad de una alternativa para la prestación de servicios de atención primaria en salud para los beneficiarios del Seguro Popular de México / Cost-effectiveness analysis of an alternative for the provision of primary health care for beneficiaries of Seguro Popular in Mexico

Resumen: Objetivo: Calcular la razón costo-efectividad de servicios públicos y privados contratados por el Seguro Popular en primer nivel de atención. Material y métodos: Se evaluó una experiencia piloto de contratación de servicios de primer nivel de atención a la salud en el estado de Hidalgo, México, midiendo, con base en una encuesta poblacional, la calidad general y la detección de disminución de visión. Se analizó la sensibilidad mediante simulaciones de Monte Carlo. Resultados: El prestador privado es dominante en calidad y costo-efectivo para la detección de disminución de visión. Conclusiones: La compra estratégica de prestadores privados de atención primaria es promisoria para mejorar los servicios de salud y reducir los costos.

Abstract: Objective: To estimate the cost-effectiveness ratio of public and private health care providers funded by Seguro Popular. Materials and methods: A pilot contracting primary care health care scheme in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico, was evaluated through a population survey to assess quality of care and detection decreased of vision. Costs were assessed from the payer perspective using institutional sources.The alternatives analyzed were a private provider with capitated and performance-based payment modalities, and a public provider funded through budget subsidies. Sensitivity analysis was performed using Monte Carlo simulations. Results: The private provider is dominant in the quality and cost-effective detection of decreased vision. Conclusions: Strategic purchasing of private providers of primary care has shown promising results as an alternative to improving quality of health services and reducing costs.

La nueva reforma a la salud en Colombia: el derecho, el aseguramiento y el sistema de salud / Challenges of the right to health in the Colombian model

La salud en Colombia es ahora un derecho fundamental que tiene que ser provisto y protegido por el Estado. A partir de metodologías de análisis de sistemas de salud propuestos por la OMS y el Banco Mundial, se evidencian las falencias, fortalezas y dificultades del sistema de salud con respecto a la ley estatutaria aprobada en febrero de 2015. Éstas incluyen la fragmentación y especialización de los servicios, barreras de acceso, incentivos no alineados con la calidad, débil gobernanza, múltiples actores con poca coordinación y sistema de información que no mide resultados. Es necesario un acuerdo social, un equilibrio y control de la tensión por parte del Estado entre el beneficio particular y el beneficio colectivo.

Health in Colombia is now a fundamental right that has to be provided and protected by the government. We evaluated the strengths and difficulties of the health system with respect to the statutory law enacted in February 2015, using methodologies for analysis of health systems proposed by the WHO and the World Bank. The challenges include the fragmentation and specialization of services, access barriers and incentives that are not aligned with the quality, weak governance, multiple actors with little coordination and information system that does not measure results. The government needs to find a necessary social agreement, a balance between the particular and the collective benefit.

Moving toward Universal Coverage of Health Insurance in Vietnam: Barriers, Facilitating Factors, and Lessons from Korea

Vietnam has pursued universal health insurance coverage for two decades but has yet to fully achieve this goal. This paper investigates the barriers to achieve universal coverage and examines the validity of facilitating factors to shorten the transitional period in Vietnam. A comparative study of facilitating factors toward universal coverage of Vietnam and Korea reveals significant internal forces for Vietnam to further develop the National Health Insurance Program. Korea in 1977 and Vietnam in 2009 have common characteristics to be favorable of achieving universal coverage with similarities of level of income, highly qualified administrative ability, tradition of solidarity, and strong political leadership although there are differences in distribution of population and structure of the economy. From a comparative perspective, Vietnam can consider the experience of Korea in implementing the mandatory enrollment approach, household unit of eligibility, design of contribution and benefit scheme, and resource allocation to health insurance for sustainable government subsidy to achieve and sustain the universal coverage of health insurance.

Reforma colombiana en salud: propuesta de ajuste en el esquema de aseguramiento y financiación / Colombian healthcare reform: a proposal for adjusting healthcare-related insurance and financing

La reforma al sistema de salud colombiano, incorporada hace más de quince años, ha sido objeto de múltiples análisis y en la actualidad parece estar afrontando una de sus más graves crisis, lo que ha llevado a que desde diferentes espacios sociales, profesionales y académicos se sugieran múltiples cambios, que van desde ajustes muy variados hasta la eliminación total del modelo. A partir de múltiples resultados de investigación, obtenidos en los últimos diez años, se presenta un balance de lo que puede haber sido central en la problemática actual y se propone que aunque el ajuste debe realizarse a partir de un gran consenso nacional, es razonable continuar con un modelo de aseguramiento siempre y cuando se recojan los aprendizajes alcanzados, con el fin de tomar las precauciones y medidas de control necesarias para impedir una nueva frustración en el propósito de alcanzar una salud más equitativa para todos.

Colombian healthcare system reform (incorporated over fifteen years ago) has been the frequent object of analysis and the system currently seems to be facing one of its most serious crises. This has led to large-scale change being suggested from many social, professional and academic spaces, ranging from varied adjustments to the healthcare-related insurance model's total elimination. Research over the last ten years has suggested a balance of what may have been central to the current problem and has suggested that, although adjustment must be made from a wide national consensus, it is reasonable to maintain a healthcare-related insurance model as long as this reflects the learning achieved to date. Precautions and the necessary control measures must be taken to impede a fresh wave of frustration regarding the aim of ensuring a healthcare system which would be more equitable for all.

Sustainability of Korean National Health Insurance

Korean National Health Insurance (NHI) was established during only 12 yr from its inception (1977-1989), providing universal medical coverage to the entire nation and making a huge contribution to medical security. However, the program now faces many challenges in terms of sustainability. The low birth rates, aging population, low economic growth, and escalating demands for welfare, as well as unification issues, all add pressure to the sustainability of NHI. The old paradigm of low contribution - low benefits coverage - low NHI's fee schedule needs to be replaced by a new paradigm of proper contribution - adequate benefit coverage - fair NHI's fee schedule. This new paradigm will require reform of NHI's operating system, funding, and spending.

Sistema de salud de Cuba / The health system of Cuba

En este trabajo se describen las condiciones de salud de Cuba y el sistema cubano de salud, incluyendo su estructura y cobertura, sus fuentes de financiamiento, su gasto en salud, los recursos físicos, materiales y humanos de los que dispone, y las actividades de rectoría e investigación que desarrolla. También se discute la importancia de sus instituciones de investigación y se describe el papel de los usuarios de los servicios en la operación y evaluación del sistema, así como las actividades que en este sentido desarrollan la Federación de Mujeres Cubanas y los Comités de Defensa de la Revolución. La parte final de este trabajo se dedica a discutir las innovaciones más recientes dentro de las que destacan las redes de cardiología, la Misión Milagro y la Batalla de Ideas.

This paper describes the health conditions in Cuba and the general characteristics of the Cuban health system, including its structure and coverage, its financial sources, its health expenditure, its physical, material and human resources, and its stewardship functions. It also discusses the increasing importance of its research institutions and the role played by its users in the operation and evaluation of the system. Salient among the social actors involved in the health sector are the Cuban Women Federation and the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution. The paper concludes with the discussion of the most recent innovations implemented in the Cuban health system, including the cardiology networks, the Miracle Mission (Misión Milagro) and the Battle of Ideas (Batalla de Ideas).

Universal vaccination of children against hepatitis a in Chile: a cost-effectiveness study / La vacunación infantil universal contra la hepatitis a en Chile: análisis de la relación costo-efectividad

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the healthcare and economic impact of routine hepatitis A vaccination of toddlers in Chile. METHODS: We used a dynamic model of hepatitis A infection to evaluate the impact of a two-dose vaccination program, administered at ages 12 and 18 months. The model incorporated the changing epidemiology of hepatitis A in Chile and the development of vaccine-induced herd immunity. Our analysis was conducted from the public payer perspective, and an estimation of the societal perspective was performed. Costs are expressed in 2005 U.S. dollars. RESULTS: Vaccination of toddlers rapidly reduced the healthcare burden of hepatitis A. In the base case (95 percent vaccination coverage, 100-year time horizon, 1 percent annual decrease in force of infection), the average number of infections fell by 76.6 percent annually, and associated deaths fell by 59.7 percent. Even at 50 percent coverage, the program reduced infection rates substantially. Routine vaccination of toddlers had economic as well as health benefits, saving $4 984 per life-year gained (base case scenario). The program became cost saving after 6 years, and its overall cost-effectiveness per life-year gained was largely unaffected by changes in disease-related costs, herd immunity, coverage rate, and annual decrease in force of infection. CONCLUSIONS: Routine vaccination of toddlers will reduce the rates of symptomatic hepatitis A and associated mortality. The two-dose schedule evaluated here will be less expensive than disease-related costs in the absence of vaccination from the sixth year of its implementation. These findings support the establishment of a routine vaccination program for toddlers in Chile.

OBJETIVO: Evaluar el impacto sanitario y económico de la vacunación sistemática de infantes contra la hepatitis A en Chile. MÉTODOS: Se empleó un modelo dinámico de hepatitis A para evaluar el impacto de un programa de vacunación de dos dosis administradas a los 12 y 18 meses. El modelo incorporó la epidemiología cambiante de la hepatitis A en Chile y la aparición de la inmunidad de grupo inducida por la vacuna. El análisis se realizó desde la perspectiva del financiador público y se hizo un estimado desde la perspectiva de la sociedad. Los costos se expresaron en dólares estadounidenses del año 2005. RESULTADOS: La vacunación de los infantes redujo rápidamente la carga de la hepatitis A para los servicios de salud. En la variante de base (cobertura de la vacunación: 95 por ciento; horizonte temporal: 100 años; reducción anual de la virulencia de la infección: 1 por ciento), el número promedio de casos se redujo anualmente en 76 por ciento y el número de muertes asociadas disminuyó en 59,7 por ciento. Incluso con una cobertura de vacunación de 50 por ciento, el programa redujo notablemente la tasa de infección. La vacunación sistemática de los infantes presentó beneficios económicos y sanitarios y ahorró US$ 4 984,00 por año de vida ganado (en el escenario base). El programa generó ahorros a partir del sexto año y la efectividad general en función del costo por año de vida ganado no se afectó por cambios en los costos relacionados con la enfermedad, la inmunidad de grupo, la cobertura de vacunación o la reducción anual de la virulencia de la infección. CONCLUSIONES: La vacunación sistemática de los infantes reduciría la tasa de hepatitis A sintomática y la mortalidad asociada. A partir del sexto año del programa, los costos de aplicar el esquema evaluado de dos dosis serían menores que los relacionados con la enfermedad si no se aplicara la vacuna. Estos resultados apoyan la implantación de programas de vacunación sistemática de infantes...

Prescription pattern for treatment of hemorrhoids under the universal coverage policy of Thailand.

The Universal Coverage Policy (UCP) or "30 Baht Scheme" was launched in Thailand in 2001. The policy caused a cutback in the budgets of all public hospitals and health service centers. Traditional medicine was then viewed as an alternative to save costs. This study examines whether this had any influence on hemorrhoid treatment prescription patterns, ratio of traditional/modern medicine, or the cost of hemorrhoid treatment after the UCP was implemented at a community hospital. The traditional medicine prescribed was Petch Sang Kart and the modern alternative was Proctosedyl. All hemorrhoid prescriptions at a community hospital from October 2000 to January 2003 were surveyed. Segmented Regression Analysis was applied to evaluate prescription trends, the ratios between the types of medicine, and the hemorrhoid treatment cost. A total of 256 prescriptions were analyzed. The average number of traditional medicine prescriptions per month were more than modern medicine (41 versus 16). During the study period, the trend of modern medicine use and the treatment cost was decreased (p < 0.01). The ratio of traditional/modern medicine increased 0.2 times (p = 0.02).

Cost of primary health care in universal insurance at Health Center 16, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration.

The purpose of the present study was to illustrate the cost of services in health promotion and prevention, out patient (OPD) and dental care in Health Center (No. 16) Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. The analysis of the cost components could be used as key data for future planning, budgeting and resources preparing for the short and long terms. The cost centers were categorized to be executive, services and supporting unit. The simultaneous equation method was employed to allocate all costs from other associated cost centers to the service unit. The unit cost per visit was 372.76 baht, while the unit cost per capitation was 532.83 baht. The unit cost of health promotion and prevention per capitation was 288.95 baht, whereas the unit cost of OPD care per capitation was 183.47 baht and the unit cost of dental care per capitation was 55.37 baht. The labor cost accountedfor 83.67 per cent, capital cost 6.09 per cent and material cost 10.24 per cent of the total cost. Unit costs of OPD and dental care were lower than the proposed budget while the unit cost of health promotion and prevention was higher. This could be due to some patients seeking OPD care from King Chulalongkorn Hospital instead, while the health promotion and prevention offering was more than that normally offered in other Health Centers. The improvement of labor efficiency and the decrease of labor cost would be the short and long run strategies respectively.

Implementing the universal health coverage: which source of information is more reliable?

The implementation of universal health coverage needs accurate data on the distribution of health benefit coverage, particularly the uninsured. The national surveys and routine reports are two important sources of information ready for use. This study shows the validation of data from two sources. The data from national household surveys on the medical welfare, the health card and the social security schemes were validated with the routine report data of the Ministry of Public Health (MOPH) and the Social Security Office (SSO) by provinces. There were considerable differences between these data sets. The national survey data gave a 1.5 times higher estimate than the report data of the MOPH and the SSO. Financial implications of using inaccurate data to implement the universal health coverage could be huge, depending on the capitation rate.

Revenue-raising potential for universal health coverage in Benin, Mali, Mozambique and Togo

Increasing overall fiscal space is important for the health sector due to the centrality of public financing to make progress towards universal health coverage. One strategy is to mobilize additional government revenues through new taxes or increased tax rates on goods and services. We illustrate how countries can assess the feasibility and quantitative potential of different revenue-raising mechanisms. We review and synthesize the processes and results from country assessments in Benin, Mali, Mozambique and Togo. The studies analysed new taxes or increased taxes on airplane tickets, phone calls, alcoholic drinks, tourism services, financial transactions, lottery tickets, vehicles and the extractive industries. Study teams in each country assessed the feasibility of new revenue-raising mechanisms using six qualitative criteria. The quantitative potential of these mechanisms was estimated by defining different scenarios and setting assumptions. Consultations with stakeholders at the start of the process served to select the revenue-raising mechanisms to study and later to discuss findings and options. Exploring feasibility was essential, as this helped rule out options that appeared promising from the quantitative assessment. Stakeholders rated stability and sustainability positive for most mechanisms, but political feasibility was a key issue throughout. The estimated additional revenues through new revenue-raising mechanisms ranged from 0.47­1.62% as a share of general government expenditure in the four countries. Overall, the revenue raised through these mechanisms was small. Countries are advised to consider multiple strategies to expand fiscal space for health